What Would the Art Citation Be for Memories of the Chicago Fire in 1871

1871 conflagration in Chicago, United States

Not bad Chicago Fire
Artist's rendering of the fire, by Currier and Ives; the view faces northeast across the Randolph Street Bridge
Location	Chicago, Illinois, United States
Coordinates	41°52′09″Due north 87°38′thirty″W  /  41.8693°N 87.6418°Westward  / 41.8693; -87.6418 Coordinates: 41°52′09″Due north 87°38′xxx″W  /  41.8693°North 87.6418°Due west  / 41.8693; -87.6418
Statistics
Cost	$222 1000000 (1871 USD)[one] (approx. $4.vii billion in 2020)[2]
Engagement(s)	October viii, 1871 (1871-10-08) – October 10, 1871 (1871-10-10)
Burned surface area	ii,112 acres (8.55 kmtwo)
Crusade	Unknown
Buildings destroyed	17,500 buildings
Deaths	300 (estimate)

The Peachy Chicago Fire was a conflagration that burned in the American city of Chicago during October eight–10, 1871. The burn killed approximately 300 people, destroyed roughly three.iii square miles (nine km²) of the metropolis including over 17,000 structures, and left more than 100,000 residents homeless.^[iii] The fire began in a neighborhood southwest of the city center. A long period of hot dry windy conditions, and the wooden construction prevalent in the city, led to the conflagration. The fire leapt the south branch of the Chicago River and destroyed much of central Chicago so leapt the master branch of the river, consuming the Nigh North Side.

Help flowed to the metropolis from about and far after the fire. The city government improved edifice codes to stop the rapid spread of future fires and rebuilt rapidly to those higher standards. A donation from the Uk spurred the institution of the Chicago Public Library, a free public library organization, a contrast to the private, fee-for-membership libraries mutual before the fire.

Origin [edit]

1871 Chicago view before the 'Great Conflagration'

The cottage of Catherine and Patrick O'Leary, 137 (now 558) W. DeKoven St. Equally this view suggests, the neighborhood was congested with hateful wooden buildings and a diversity of industry, a status which helped to spread the burn of 1871 every bit apace as information technology did. A strong wind blowing towards the northeast spared the O'Leary cottage and the buildings seen hither to its west. From a stereoptican view past A.H. Abbott, Photographer, whose studio at 976 (now 2201) Due north. Clark Street was consumed by the flames.

The burn is claimed to have started at about 8:thirty p.one thousand. on October eight, in or around a small barn belonging to the O'Leary family that bordered the alley backside 137 DeKoven Street.^[4] The shed adjacent to the barn was the get-go building to be consumed by the fire. City officials never adamant the cause of the blaze,^[5] but the rapid spread of the fire due to a long drought in that year's summertime, strong winds from the southwest, and the rapid destruction of the water pumping system, explain the all-encompassing harm of the mainly wooden city structures. At that place has been much speculation over the years on a unmarried start to the fire. The most popular tale blames Mrs. O'Leary's cow, who allegedly knocked over a lantern; others state that a group of men were gambling inside the barn and knocked over a lantern.^[vi] All the same other speculation suggests that the blaze was related to other fires in the Midwest that day.^[i]

The fire'southward spread was aided by the urban center's use of wood as the predominant building material in a style called airship frame. More two-thirds of the structures in Chicago at the time of the burn were fabricated entirely of forest, with most of the houses and buildings existence topped with highly flammable tar or shingle roofs. All of the urban center's sidewalks and many roads were too made of woods.^[6] Compounding this trouble, Chicago received only ane inch (25 mm) of rain from July iv to October 9, causing astringent drought weather before the fire, while stiff southwest winds helped to behave flying embers toward the heart of the city.^{[1] : 144}

In 1871, the Chicago Burn Department had 185 firefighters with just 17 horse-drawn steam pumpers to protect the unabridged city.^{[1] : 146} The initial response by the fire department was quick, but due to an mistake past the watchman, Matthias Schaffer, the firefighters were sent to the wrong place, assuasive the burn to abound unchecked.^{[i] : 146} An warning sent from the area near the burn also failed to annals at the courthouse where the fire watchmen were, while the firefighters were tired from having fought numerous small fires and one large burn down in the week before.^[vii] These factors combined to turn a small-scale barn burn down into a conflagration.

Spread [edit]

1869 map of Chicago, altered to show the area destroyed by the fire (location of O'Leary'southward barn indicated past red dot)

When firefighters finally arrived at DeKoven Street, the fire had grown and spread to neighboring buildings and was progressing toward the fundamental business district. Firefighters had hoped that the South Branch of the Chicago River and an area that had previously thoroughly burned would human action equally a natural firebreak.^{[1] : 147} All forth the river, still, were lumber yards, warehouses, and coal yards, and barges and numerous bridges across the river. As the fire grew, the southwest air current intensified and became superheated, causing structures to catch fire from the rut and from burning debris blown by the wind. Around midnight, flaming debris blew across the river and landed on roofs and the South Side Gas Works.^{[1] : 148}

With the fire across the river and moving rapidly toward the heart of the metropolis, panic gear up in. About this time, Mayor Roswell B. Mason sent messages to nearby towns request for aid. When the courthouse defenseless fire, he ordered the building to be evacuated and the prisoners jailed in the basement to be released. At ii:thirty a.g. on the 9th, the cupola of the courthouse complanate, sending the great bell crashing down.^{[i] : 148} Some witnesses reported hearing the sound from a mile (1.6 km) away.^{[1] : 150}

As more buildings succumbed to the flames, a major contributing cistron to the fire's spread was a meteorological phenomenon known equally a burn whirl.^[8] As overheated air rises, it comes into contact with cooler air and begins to spin, creating a tornado-similar effect. These fire whirls are probable what collection flaming debris so high and then far. Such debris was blown across the main branch of the Chicago River to a railroad car conveying kerosene.^{[1] : 152} The fire had jumped the river a second fourth dimension and was now raging across the urban center's north side. Also probable a factor in the fire's rapid spread was the corporeality of combustible waste that had accumulated in the river from years of improper disposal methods used by local industries.^[9]

Despite the fire spreading and growing rapidly, the city'due south firefighters continued to battle the bonfire. A short time after the fire jumped the river, a called-for piece of timber lodged on the roof of the city's waterworks. Within minutes, the interior of the edifice was engulfed in flames and the building was destroyed. With it, the urban center'due south h2o mains went dry and the urban center was helpless.^{[1] : 152–3} The fire burned unchecked from edifice to edifice, cake to block.^{[ citation needed ]}

Finally, late into the evening of October 9, it started to rain, but the burn down had already started to burn itself out. The fire had spread to the sparsely populated areas of the north side, having consumed the densely populated areas thoroughly.^{[1] : 158}

Aftermath [edit]

Aftermath of the burn down, corner of Dearborn and Monroe Streets, 1871

Once the fire had concluded, the smoldering remains were yet too hot for a survey of the damage to be completed for many days. Eventually, the urban center determined that the fire destroyed an area near 4 miles (6 km) long and averaging 3⁄4 mile (i km) wide, encompassing an surface area of more 2,000 acres (809 ha).^{[1] : 159} Destroyed were more than 73 miles (117 km) of roads, 120 miles (190 km) of sidewalk, 2,000 lampposts, 17,500 buildings, and $222 one thousand thousand in property,^[1] which was about a third of the metropolis'southward valuation in 1871.^[three]

On Oct 11, 1871, General Philip H. Sheridan came rapidly to the assist of the city and was placed in accuse by a proclamation, given by mayor Roswell B. Mason:

"The Preservation of the Good Gild and Peace of the city is hereby intrusted to Lieut. General P.H. Sheridan, U.South. Army."^[10]

To protect the city from looting and violence, the city was put under martial constabulary for ii weeks under Gen. Sheridan'southward command construction with a mix of regular troops, militia units, police, and a specially organized civilian group "First Regiment of Chicago Volunteers." Former Lieutenant-Governor William Bross, and office owner of the Tribune, afterwards recollected his response to the arrival of Gen. Sheridan and his soldiers:

"Never did deeper emotions of joy overcome me. Thank God, those most dear to me and the city every bit well are prophylactic."^[11]

Full general Philip H. Sheridan, who saved Chicago three times: the Great Fire in Oct 1871, when he used explosives to stop the spread; once more after the Great Fire, protecting the urban center; and lastly in 1877 during the "communist riots", riding in from ane,000 miles away to restore order.^[12]

For two weeks Sheridan's men patrolled the streets, guarded the relief warehouses, and enforced other regulations. On Oct 24 the troops were relieved of their duties and the volunteers were mustered out of service.^[11]

Of the approximately 324,000 inhabitants of Chicago in 1871, 90,000 Chicago residents (ane in iii residents) were left homeless. 120 bodies were recovered, but the expiry cost may have been as loftier every bit 300.^{[13] [14]} The county coroner speculated that an accurate count was impossible, equally some victims may accept drowned or had been incinerated, leaving no remains.^[15]

In the days and weeks following the burn down, budgetary donations flowed into Chicago from around the state and abroad, along with donations of food, clothing, and other goods. These donations came from individuals, corporations, and cities. New York City gave $450,000 along with article of clothing and provisions, St. Louis gave $300,000, and the Common Quango of London gave 1,000 guineas, besides equally £7,000 from private donations.^[sixteen] In Greenock, Scotland (pop. 40,000) a town meeting raised £518 on the spot.^[17] Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Buffalo, all commercial rivals, donated hundreds and thousands of dollars. Milwaukee, along with other nearby cities, helped by sending fire-fighting equipment. Food, clothing and books were brought by train from all over the continent.^[18] Mayor Mason placed the Chicago Relief and Aid Guild in accuse of the urban center'south relief efforts.^{[1] : 162}

Operating from the First Congregational Church building, urban center officials and aldermen began taking steps to preserve order in Chicago. Price gouging was a key concern, and in 1 ordinance, the city set the cost of bread at 8¢ for a 12-ounce (340 k) loaf.^[19] Public buildings were opened as places of refuge, and saloons closed at nine in the evening for the calendar week following the fire. Many people who were left homeless after the incident were never able to get their normal lives dorsum since all their personal papers and belongings burned in the conflagration.^{[ commendation needed ]}

After the fire, A. H. Burgess of London proposed an "English language Volume Donation", to spur a free library in Chicago, in their sympathy with Chicago over the damages suffered.^[xx] Libraries in Chicago had been private with membership fees. In April 1872, the Metropolis Council passed the ordinance to establish the gratis Chicago Public Library, starting with the donation from the United kingdom of more than than 8,000 volumes.^[20]

The fire likewise led to questions nigh evolution in the United States. Due to Chicago's rapid expansion at that time, the fire led to Americans reflecting on industrialization. Based on a religious point of view, some said that Americans should return to a more former-fashioned style of life, and that the fire was caused by people ignoring traditional morality. On the other hand, others believed that a lesson to be learned from the burn was that cities needed to meliorate their building techniques. Frederick Law Olmsted observed that poor building practices in Chicago were a problem:^[21]

Chicago had a weakness for "big things", and liked to think that it was outbuilding New York. It did a great bargain of commercial advertizement in its firm-tops. The faults of construction as well as of fine art in its great showy buildings must take been numerous. Their walls were thin, and were overweighted with gross and coarse misornamentation.

Chicago Tribune editorial

Olmsted also believed that with brick walls, and disciplined firemen and constabulary, the deaths and damage caused would have been much less.^[21]

Almost immediately, the city began to rewrite its fire standards, spurred by the efforts of leading insurance executives, and fire-prevention reformers such as Arthur C. Ducat. Chicago presently developed 1 of the country's leading fire-fighting forces.^[22]

More than 20 years after the Great Fire, 'The Globe Columbian Exposition of 1893', known as the 'White City', for being lit up with newly invented light bulbs and electrical power.

Business owners, and land speculators such every bit Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard, quickly set well-nigh rebuilding the city. The first load of lumber for rebuilding was delivered the twenty-four hour period the final burning building was extinguished. By the World'southward Columbian Exposition 22 years later, Chicago hosted more than 21 million visitors. The Palmer House hotel burned to the ground in the fire 13 days subsequently its grand opening. Its developer, Potter Palmer, secured a loan and rebuilt the hotel to higher standards, across the street from the original, proclaiming information technology to be "The World's Offset Fireproof Building".^[23]

In 1956, the remaining structures on the original O'Leary property at 558 W. DeKoven Street were torn down for construction of the Chicago Burn Academy, a grooming facility for Chicago firefighters, known as the Quinn Burn Academy or Chicago Burn Department Training Facility. A bronze sculpture of stylized flames, entitled Pillar of Fire by sculptor Egon Weiner, was erected on the signal of origin in 1961.^[24]

Surviving structures [edit]

A pre-burn down house in Chicago on Cleveland Artery (photographed in 2016)

The following structures from the burned district are still standing:

• St. Michael's Church, Old Town
• Chicago Water Tower
• Chicago Avenue Pumping Station
• St. Ignatius Higher Prep.
• Police Constable Bellinger's cottage at 21 Lincoln Place (2121 Northward Hudson, today).^[25]
• 2323 and 2339 North Cleveland Artery also survived the blaze.^[25]

St. Michael's Church building and the Pumping Station were both gutted in the burn, but their exteriors survived, and the buildings were rebuilt using the surviving walls. Additionally, though the inhabitable portions of the building were destroyed, the bell tower of St. James Cathedral survived the fire and was incorporated into the rebuilt church. The stones almost the top of the tower are notwithstanding blackened from the soot and smoke.

Panorama of damage [edit]

Attributed to George Northward. Barnard

Precise start [edit]

Almost from the moment the fire broke out, various theories virtually its crusade began to circulate.^{[26] [27] [28] [29] : 56, ninety, 232} The nigh popular and enduring fable maintains that the fire began in the O'Leary barn equally Mrs. O'Leary was milking her cow. The cow kicked over a lantern (or an oil lamp in some versions), setting fire to the barn. The O'Leary family unit denied this, stating that they were in bed before the fire started, only stories of the moo-cow began to spread across the city. Catherine O'Leary seemed the perfect scapegoat: she was a poor, Irish Catholic immigrant. During the latter half of the 19th century, anti-Irish sentiment was strong throughout the United states and in Chicago. This was intensified as a result of the growing political power of the city's Irish gaelic population.^{[1] : 442} Furthermore, the United States had been distrustful of Catholics (or papists, every bit they were frequently called) since its outset, carrying over attitudes in England in the 17th century;^{[xxx] [31] [32] [33] [34]} every bit an Irish Catholic, Mrs. O'Leary was a target of both anti-Catholic and anti-Irish sentiment. This story was circulating in Chicago even before the flames had died out, and it was noted in the Chicago Tribune's first post-fire consequence. In 1893 the reporter Michael Ahern retracted the "moo-cow-and-lantern" story, admitting it was made, but even his confession was unable to put the legend to rest.^[35] Although the O'Learys were never officially charged with starting the fire, the story became so engrained in local lore that Chicago'due south city council officially exonerated them—and the cow—in 1997.^[36]

Amateur historian Richard Bales has suggested the fire started when Daniel "Pegleg" Sullivan, who first reported the fire, ignited hay in the befouled while trying to steal milk.^{[29] : 127–130} Part of Bales's bear witness includes an business relationship past Sullivan, who claimed in an enquiry before the Fire Department of Chicago on November 25, 1871, that he saw the fire coming through the side of the barn and ran beyond DeKoven Street to complimentary the animals from the barn, i of which included a cow owned by Sullivan'south female parent.^[37] Bales'southward account does not take consensus. The Chicago Public Library staff criticized his account in their web page on the burn down.^[38] Despite this, the Chicago city council was convinced of Bales's statement and stated that the actions of Sullivan on that 24-hour interval should be scrutinized after the O'Leary family was exonerated in 1997.^{[36] [39]}

Anthony DeBartolo reported testify in two articles of the Chicago Tribune (October 8, 1997, and March iii, 1998, reprinted in Hyde Park Media) suggesting that Louis Grand. Cohn may accept started the burn down during a craps game.^{[forty] [41] [42]} Following his expiry in 1942, Cohn ancestral $35,000 which was assigned past his executors to the Medill School of Journalism at Northwestern Academy. The bequest was given to the school on September 28, 1944,^[41] and the dedication contained a claim past Cohn to accept been present at the first of the burn down. According to Cohn, on the dark of the fire, he was gambling in the O'Learys' barn with one of their sons and some other neighborhood boys. When Mrs. O'Leary came out to the barn to hunt the gamblers away at around 9:00, they knocked over a lantern in their flying, although Cohn states that he paused long enough to scoop up the money. The argument is not universally accepted.^[43]

An alternative theory, beginning suggested in 1882 past Ignatius L. Donnelly in Ragnarok: The Age of Fire and Gravel, is that the fire was acquired past a falling star shower. This was described every bit a "fringe theory" apropos Biela's Comet. At a 2004 briefing of the Aerospace Corporation and the American Constitute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, engineer and physicist Robert Woods suggested that the burn down began when a fragment of Biela's Comet impacted the Midwest. Biela'southward Comet had broken autonomously in 1845 and had not been observed since. Wood argued that four large fires took identify, all on the same day, all on the shores of Lake Michigan (see Related Events), suggesting a mutual root cause. Eyewitnesses reported sighting spontaneous ignitions, lack of smoke, "balls of fire" falling from the heaven, and blueish flames. According to Wood, these accounts advise that the fires were caused past the methane that is usually found in comets.^[44] Meteorites are not known to start or spread fires and are absurd to the touch later reaching the footing, so this theory has not plant favor in the scientific community.^{[45] [46]} Methane-air mixtures become flammable just when the marsh gas concentration exceeds v%, at which signal the mixtures likewise become explosive, a situation unlikely to occur from meteorites.^{[47] [48]} Methane gas is lighter than air and thus does not accumulate near the ground;^[48] any localized pockets of methane in the open air rapidly dissipate. Moreover, if a fragment of an icy comet were to strike the Earth, the most likely consequence, due to the low tensile force of such bodies, would exist for it to disintegrate in the upper atmosphere, leading to an air burst explosion analogous to that of the Tunguska event.^[49]

The specific pick of Biela's Comet does not match with the dates in question, every bit the 6-year period of the comet'south orbit did non intersect that of the Earth until 1872, ane full year after the burn down, when a large falling star shower was indeed observed. A common crusade for the fires in the Midwest in late 1871 is that the expanse had suffered through a tinder-dry out summertime, so that winds from the front that moved in that evening were capable of generating rapidly expanding blazes from available ignition sources, which were plentiful in the region.^{[50] [29] : 111}

[edit]

On that hot, dry, and windy autumn day, 3 other major fires occurred along the shores of Lake Michigan at the same time as the Great Chicago Fire. Some 250 miles (400 km) to the due north, the Peshtigo Burn consumed the boondocks of Peshtigo, Wisconsin, forth with a dozen other villages. Information technology killed 1,200 to two,500 people and charred approximately 1.5 one thousand thousand acres (6,000 km²). The Peshtigo Burn remains the deadliest in American history^[51] but the remoteness of the region meant information technology was little noticed at the fourth dimension, due to the fact that one of the first things that burned were the telegraph lines to Green Bay.^[52]

Across the lake to the east, the town of The netherlands, Michigan, and other nearby areas burned to the basis.^[53] Some 100 miles (160 km) to the north of The netherlands, the lumbering customs of Manistee likewise went up in flames^[54] in what became known as the Great Michigan Burn.^[53]

Farther due east, along the shore of Lake Huron, the Port Huron Fire swept through Port Huron, Michigan and much of Michigan's "Thumb". On October 9, 1871, a burn swept through the urban center of Urbana, Illinois, 140 miles (230 km) s of Chicago, destroying portions of its downtown surface area.^[55] Windsor, Ontario, besides burned on Oct 12.^[56]

The city of Singapore, Michigan, provided a large portion of the lumber to rebuild Chicago. Every bit a outcome, the area was and then heavily deforested that the land deteriorated into arid sand dunes that buried the town, and the town had to be abandoned.^[57]

In popular culture [edit]

• The University of Illinois at Chicago athletic teams are named the Flames since 1982, in commemoration of the Great Chicago Fire.^[58]
• Although set in Philadelphia, Theodore Dreiser's 1912 novel The Financier portrays the nationwide touch the 1871 Chicago fire had on the stock markets and the financial world.^[59]
• The 1938 pic In Old Chicago is centered on the burn down, with a highly fictionalized portrayal of the O'Leary family as the primary characters.^[60]
• In 1974, the Chicago Fire football team played in the brusk-lived World Football League.^[61] Another Chicago Fire played in the American Football Association.^[62]
• Events of the 1986 novel Illinois! past Noel Gerson writing as Dana Fuller Ross occur around the Great Chicago Fire.^[63]
• The 1987 Williams pinball "Fire!" was inspired past the Great Chicago Burn down. A cow audio tin can be heard at the showtime of gameplay, alluding to Mrs. O'Leary's moo-cow.^{[ commendation needed ]}
• The 1995 book The Swell Fire by Jim Murphy tells the story of the fire for children, and was a Newbery Honor book in 1996.^{[64] [65]}
• A 1998 episode of the American idiot box serial Early Edition depicted Gary Hobson finding himself back in time in 1871 trying to prevent the fire. While he initially succeeds and stops the fire afterward the lantern is kicked over, subsequent events pb to the fire restarting, preserving the historical event while changing its origin.
• The Major League Soccer squad Chicago Burn down was founded on October 8, 1997, the 126th anniversary of the Great Chicago Fire.^[66]
• In 2014, the city of Chicago and Redmoon Theater partnered to create The Great Chicago Fire Festival. Held on October 4, 2014, the event savage victim to technical difficulties equally replicas of 1871 houses on floating barges in the Chicago River failed to ignite properly due to electrical problems and heavy rain on the preceding days.^[67]
• The Beach Boys' instrumental rails titled "Mrs. O'Leary'south Moo-cow" was inspired by the fabled cause of the Great Chicago Fire, and served every bit the representation for the classical element burn down on their abandoned project Grinning.

Run into as well [edit]

• Dwight L. Moody – 19th-century evangelist whose church building was burned downward in the burn
• Horatio Spafford – author of hymn "Information technology Is Well With My Soul"

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f g h i j k l g due north o p} Miller, Donald (1996). City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America . New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN978-0684831381.
2. ^ "$222,000,000 in 1871 → 2020 | Inflation Calculator".
3. ^ ^{a b} Rayfield, Jo Ann (1997). "Tragedy in the Chicago Fire and Triumph in the Architectural Response". Illinois History Teacher. Retrieved September 25, 2018 – via Illinois Periodicals Online.
4. ^ Pierce, Bessie Louise (2007) [1957]. A History of Chicago: Book 3: The Rise of a Mod City, 1871–1893. Republished. Chicago: Academy of Chicago Press. p. 4. ISBN978-0-226-66842-0.
5. ^ Owens, L.L. (Baronial 1, 2007). The Swell Chicago Fire. ABDO. p. 7. ISBN978-1604538076.
6. ^ ^{a b} Murphy, Jim (1995). The Bully Fire. Scholastic Inc. ISBN9780439203074.
7. ^ "The Burn down Fiend". Chicago Daily Tribune. October 8, 1871. p. three. Retrieved Nov 27, 2007.
8. ^ Abbott, Karen (October 4, 2012). "What (or Who) Acquired the Swell Chicago Fire?". Smithsonian Magazine . Retrieved February 24, 2014.
9. ^ Indicate, Michael A. "The Great Chicago Fire" (PDF). sandiegounified . Retrieved January 22, 2019. Flames even raced right beyond the Chicago River, feeding on flammable waste in the h2o.
10. ^ "Military Rule in Chicago". The Keen Chicago Fire & The Web of Memory . Retrieved Jan x, 2020.
11. ^ ^{a b} "Rescue and Relief". The Great Chicago Burn & The Spider web of Memory . Retrieved January 10, 2020.
12. ^ Grossman, Ron (December eleven, 2014). "Why it's called Sheridan Road – or how the general saved Chicago". Chicago Tribune . Retrieved June 26, 2021.
13. ^ "The Chicago Fire of 1871 and the 'Great Rebuilding'". National Geographic. January 25, 2011. Retrieved February 19, 2019.
14. ^ "Chicago Burn down of 1871". History.com . Retrieved February 19, 2019.
15. ^ Society, National Geographic (January 25, 2011). "The Chicago Burn down of 1871 and the 'Dandy Rebuilding'". National Geographic Society . Retrieved Feb two, 2022.
16. ^ The Cracking Fires in Chicago and The West, by a Chicago Chaplain, Published by J.W. Goodspeed, Chicago, 1871
17. ^ "The Chicago Fire". The Greenock Telegraph. October 17, 1871. .
18. ^ Pauly, John J. (Winter 1984). "The Great Chicago Fire as a National Upshot". American Quarterly. The Johns Hopkins University Printing. 36 (5): 671. doi:10.2307/2712866. JSTOR 2712866.
19. ^ Pierce, Betty Louise (1957). A History of Chicago: The Ascent of a Modernistic Urban center. Chicago: University of Chicago Printing. p. 7.
20. ^ ^{a b} "CPL History, 1871–1872". Chicago Public Library. Retrieved September 26, 2018.
21. ^ ^{a b} Pauly, John J. (Winter 1984). "The Great Chicago Burn down as a National Event". American Quarterly. The Johns Hopkins Academy Printing. 36 (5): 673–674. doi:10.2307/2712866. JSTOR 2712866.
22. ^ Society, National Geographic (January 25, 2011). "The Chicago Fire of 1871 and the 'Great Rebuilding'". National Geographic Society . Retrieved February two, 2022.
23. ^ "Of Grids and the Dandy Chicago Fire". The MIT Press Reader. January 3, 2020. Retrieved September 15, 2021.
24. ^ "Chicago Landmarks". Archived from the original on May four, 2009. Retrieved December fourteen, 2006.
25. ^ ^{a b} Schmidt, John R. (July 19, 2011). "The Cider House and the Great Fire". WBEZ Blogs. Archived from the original on December 24, 2015. Retrieved April 4, 2018.
26. ^ Critchell, Robert Siderfin (1909). Recollections of a Burn Insurance Human being: Including His Experience in U.S. Navy (Mississippi Squadron) During the Civil War. The writer. p. 81. Retrieved April four, 2018 – via Cyberspace Archive. Milk Punch.
27. ^ "The Great Chicago Fire: What Part Did the Celebrated O'Leary Cow Play in Disaster?". Fire Protection Service. National Underwriter Company (82): ten. October 8, 1921. Retrieved April 4, 2018 – via Google Books.
28. ^ Fedler, Fred (August 1985). "Mrs. O'Leary'southward Cow and Other Newspaper Tales nigh the 1871 Neat Chicago Fire" (PDF). Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication.
29. ^ ^{a b c} Schwartz, Thomas F. (2005). Foreword. The Neat Chicago Fire and the Myth of Mrs. O'Leary's Cow. By Bales, Richard F. Jefferson, Due north Carolina: McFarland. ISBN978-0-7864-2358-iii.
30. ^ Mannard, Joseph G. (1981). American Anti-Catholicism and its Literature. Archived from the original on Oct 21, 2002.
31. ^ Kaminski, John P. (March 2002). "Religion and the Founding Fathers". Annotation (National Historical Publications and Records Commission). 30 (1). ISSN 0160-8460. Archived from the original on March 27, 2008.
32. ^ Carroll, Rory (September 12, 2015). "America's Dark and Not-Very-Afar History of Hating Catholics". The Guardian . Retrieved September 25, 2018.
33. ^ Curran, Robert Emmett (2014). Papist Devils: Catholics in British America, 1574–1783. Catholic University of America Press. pp. 201–202. ISBN978-0813225838.
34. ^ Ellis, John Tracy (1969) [1956]. American Catholicism . Academy of Chicago Press.
35. ^ Cromie, Robert (1994). The Bang-up Chicago Burn . New York: Rutledge Colina Press. ISBN978-1-55853-264-9.
36. ^ ^{a b} Mills, Steve (Oct 6, 1997). "Mrs. O'Leary, Moo-cow Cleared by Urban center Council Committee". Chicago Tribune . Retrieved September 25, 2018.
37. ^ Bales, Richard (May 12, 2004). "Was Daniel "Peg Leg" Sullivan the Real Culprit? | the Cause of the Corking Chicago Burn". thechicagofire.com. Archived from the original on February 23, 2007.
38. ^ "The Chicago Fire". Chicago Public Library. 2009. Archived from the original on May 5, 2010. Retrieved September thirty, 2009.
39. ^ Soniak, Matt (June 23, 2014). "Did a Cow Really Cause the Groovy Chicago Burn down?". Mental Floss . Retrieved April 4, 2018.
40. ^ DeBartolo, Anthony. "Who Acquired The Great Chicago Fire: The Moo-cow? Or Louis M. Cohn?". Hyde Park Media. Archived from the original on November 24, 2005.
41. ^ ^{a b} DeBartolo, Anthony (October 8, 1997). "Col. Mustard with A Bic?". Chicago Tribune . Retrieved September 25, 2018.
42. ^ DeBartolo, Anthony (March 3, 1998). "Odds Improve That A Hot Game of Craps in Mrs. O'Leary's Befouled Touched Off Chicago Burn down". Chicago Tribune . Retrieved September 25, 2018.
43. ^ Potash, Larry (October 6, 2006). "The Great Argue over the Bully Fire". Chicago Tribune . Retrieved September 25, 2018.
44. ^ Forest, Robert (February 3, 2004). "Did Biela'southward Comet Cause the Chicago and Midwest Fires?" (PDF). American Plant of Helmsmanship and Astronautics. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2009. Retrieved Nov 27, 2018.
45. ^ Calfee, Mica (February 2003). "Was It A Cow Or A Meteorite?". Meteorite Mag. 9 (1). Retrieved November 10, 2011.
46. ^ "Meteorites Don't Popular Corn". NASA. July 27, 2001. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
47. ^ "Gases – Explosive and Flammability Concentration Limits". Engineering Tool Box. Retrieved November xiii, 2011.
48. ^ ^{a b} "Landfill Gas". Ecology Health Fact Sail. Illinois Department of Public Health. Retrieved Nov 13, 2011.
49. ^ Beech, M. (November 2006). "The Problem of Ice Meteorites" (PDF). Meteorite Quarterly. 12 (4): 17–nineteen. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 27, 2011. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
50. ^ Gess, Denise; Lutz, William (2003). Firestorm at Peshtigo: A Town, Its People, and the Deadliest Fire in American History. New York: Macmillan. ISBN978-0-8050-7293-8. OCLC 52421495.
51. ^ Rosenwald, Michael S. (December half-dozen, 2017). "'The dark America burned': The deadliest – and most overlooked – fire in U.S. history". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved Feb 23, 2018.
52. ^ Tasker, G. (Oct x, 2003). "Worst fire largely unknown". The Baltimore Sun . Retrieved Oct 9, 2013.
53. ^ ^{a b} Wilkins, A. (March 29, 2012). "October 8, 1871: The Night America Burned". io9. Gawker Media. Retrieved Oct ix, 2013.
54. ^ "The Great Burn of 1871". History of Manistee, Bricklayer and Oceana counties, Michigan. Chicago: H. R. Page & Co. 1882.
55. ^ "History Of The Urbana Fire Section". Urbana Firefighters Local 1147. March seven, 2008. Archived from the original on Apr 25, 2012. Retrieved Nov 11, 2011.
56. ^ "The Timeline: Fire of 1871". Settling Canada'due south Southward: How Windsor Was Fabricated. Windsor Public Library. 2002. Archived from the original on Oct 26, 2007. Retrieved March 14, 2008.
57. ^ Royce, Julie Albrecht (2007). Traveling Michigan'southward Dusk Declension. Canis familiaris Ear Publishing. pp. 58–59. ISBN978-1598583212 . Retrieved May 3, 2014.
58. ^ "History: UIC mascots". The Academy of Illinois at Chicago. Retrieved September 26, 2018.
59. ^ Dreiser, Theodore (2010). Mulligan, Roark (ed.). The Financier: The Disquisitional Edition. University of Illinois Press. Retrieved January 15, 2018.
60. ^ "In Old Chicago | picture show by King [1937]". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on October 12, 2016. Retrieved October viii, 2016.
61. ^ "World Football League". wfl.charlottehornetswfl.com . Retrieved Apr eight, 2019.
62. ^ AC (August 12, 2015). "Chicago Fire, American Football Association". Fun While It Lasted . Retrieved April eight, 2019.
63. ^ Ross, Dana Fuller (1986). Illinois! (Wagons Due west, book xviii). Bantam Books. ISBN978-0553260229.
64. ^ Spud, Jim (1995). The great fire. ISBN978-0-590-47267-8. OCLC 30070801.
65. ^ "1996 Newbery Medal and Honor Books". Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC). November 30, 1999. Retrieved November 16, 2021.
66. ^ "Chicago Fire History". MLS (Major League Soccer). February 23, 2012.
67. ^ Pratt, Gregory (Oct five, 2014). "Some feel burned past Peachy Chicago Fire Festival". Chicago Tribune . Retrieved September 26, 2018.

Further reading [edit]

• Chicago and the Great Conflagration – Elias Colbert and Everett Chamberlin, 1871, 528 pp.
• History of the Great Fires in Chicago and the West. Rev. Edgar J. Goodspeed, D.D., 677 pp.
• Morris, Roy, Jr., Sheridan: The Life and Wars of General Phil Sheridan, Crown Publishing, 1992, ISBN 0-517-58070-v.
• "People & Events: The Great Burn down of 1871". The Public Broadcasting System (PBS) Website Archived January 27, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved September 3, 2004.
• The Great Conflagration – James West. Sheahan and George P. Upton, 1871, 458 pp.
• Shaw, William B. (October v, 1921). "The Chicago Fire – 50 Years After". The Outlook. 129: 176–178. Retrieved July 30, 2009.
• Smith, Carl (1995). Urban Disorder and the Shape of Belief: The Great Chicago Burn down, the Haymarket Flop, and the Model Boondocks of Pullman. Chicago: Academy of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-76416-0.
• Smith, Carl (2020). Chicago'southward Great Fire: The Destruction and Resurrection of an Iconic American Metropolis. New York: Grove Atlantic. ISBN978-0-802-14811-7.
• "Mrs. O'Leary'due south Comet: Cosmic Causes of the Great Chicago Fire" by Mel Waskin (1985)^{[ ISBN missing ]}

External links [edit]

• The Great Chicago Fire 1996, Chicago Historical Society
• Smashing Chicago Fire & the Web of Memory

bittnerfrethe.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Chicago_Fire

Share this post